Gender Differences in Body Image

Body
Image and Gender Difference: A Study of Epic Proportions

Introduction

Body image is defined as “The subjective picture or mental image of one’s own body”, with a statement as broad as this it is easy to see how there are discrepancies when it comes to how one chooses to view themselves. The constant input of ideal body types from the media and outside sources bombards one’s mind and can lead to feelings of dissatisfaction and a longing for change. This study aimed to closely examine body image, gender differences, and confidence to perform physical activity in relation to students attending their first-year program at university. This correlation is important to study because it addresses topics such as body image and the role physical activity plays in the lives of individuals which can be applied to everyday life.

Predicting that females will have a stronger relationship with negative body image than males is a valid expectation when it is formed on the basis that women have a biological predisposition to higher body fat percentages, along with societies idealised standard of beauty which increasingly insists on women being thin (Cash, Morrow, Hrabosky & Perry, 2004). The study Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Health-Related Behaviors Among Male and Female First-Year College Students (Lowery et al., 2005) supports this prediction. Men displayed more positive body image than women, which may be influenced by societal expectations for women being more extreme than those for men. These findings are consistent with other studies (Silberstein, Striegel-Moore, Timko, & Rodin, 1988) where despite the majority of both male and female participants selecting an ideal body that differed from their perceived figures, twice as many females had chosen an ideal figure that was two or more figures apart from their perceived figure.  Compared to men, women reported more body surveillance, greater body shame, a greater discrepancy between their ideal and real body figures, and more dissatisfaction with their weight and physical appearance (Lowery et al., 2005).

Evidence in studies also
suggests that there is a positive relationship between physical activity and
body image (Alfermann & Stoll, 2000) (Campbell & Hausenblas, 2009). A
six-month exercise program composed of 24 males and 24 females, compared to a
control group, produced results that showed that the exercise group improved in
physical self-concept significantly in comparison to the control group. Further
analysis determined that the only variable that differed considerably between
males and females was perceived physical fitness (Alfermann & Stoll, 2000).
All other dependent variables were similar between participants of both sexes
at the beginning of the study. Therefore, while both males and females
increased in positive body image consistently with each other throughout the
study, the difference in body image between men and women also remained
consistent throughout the study. Another similar study (Sánchez-Miguel, Leo,
Amado, Pulido, & Sánchez-Oliva, 2017) showed that not only did females have
a more negative body image than males, regardless of the effects of physical
activity, but that intrinsic motivation towards exercise was greater in males
while amotivation was more prominent in females. Research suggests that this
may be explained due to women’s tendency to associate body dissatisfaction with
the concept of self-esteem (Furnham, Badmin & Sneade, 2002), which could
potentially discourage women from exercising, while male self-esteem seemed to
have no correlation with body dissatisfaction, thus had no effect on motivation
to exercise.

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Additional research can
be used to associate poor self-esteem adversely influencing women’s lower
levels of motivation to exercise with the consensus that females have a more
negative body image.  A relevant study showed
patterns that indicated that those with a higher positive body image were more
likely to engage in physical activity in comparison to those with a
predominantly negative body image (Kruger, Lee, Ainsworth & Marcera, 2008).
Dr. Kruger’s study, Body Size
Satisfaction, and Physical Activity Levels Among Men and Women, tested the
correlation between body image and physical exercise. The results of this study
found that 55.8% of men and 53.3% of women with positive body image exercised
regularly. Regardless of participants actual weight, those who were satisfied
with their body had a higher probability of engaging in physical activity than
those less satisfied.

The main questions this study is looking to answer are; how satisfied are students with their bodies, are confidence to manage and perform physical activity, body mass index (BMI) or actual physical activity levels related to body-image satisfaction in this population and lastly, do men have more positive body-image satisfaction than women. It is also predicted that females will have lower body satisfaction and overall body image scores than males based off prior results from other similar studies.

Methods

Participants

The sample for this study consisted of 112 first year students, with 73 females and 39 males. Ranging in ages from 18-24, the average age for females was 18.5 and the average age for males was 18.7, with an overall average age of 18.6 years.

Measures

The approach used for this study was a one-time qualitative online questionnaire filled out by the first year students enrolled in the course. The questionnaire assessed the psychological variables by using a modified version of the self-efficacy measures (Shields & Brawley, 2007) to look at confidence to manage and perform physical activity. It also uses The Adult Body Satisfaction Questionnaire based on the body-cathexis scale (Secord & Jourard, 1953) to measure body image, and The Godin Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire (Godin, 2011) to measure physical activity. Finally, it calculates BMI (measured by weight in kg/height in meters squared) and individual demographics such as age and sex. The results were then combined into a spreadsheet that compiled all of the given information (sex, age, height, weight, level of physical activity, years in sport, confidence levels and individual physical appearance satisfaction). This method of data collection is seen as an accessible way of composing a large set of data quickly and easily.

Procedures

The study conducted was cross-sectional involving first-year students completing a one-time, anonymous, online questionnaire specific to body image, confidence, physical activity, body mass index and demographics such as age and gender. The participants were asked to rank their satisfaction on a scale of 1-7 relating to specific questions. Some of the questions included; In the past 4 weeks how satisfied have you been with your overall level of physical fitness? In the past 4 weeks, how satisfied have you been with your physical ability to do what you want or need to do? In the past 4 weeks, how satisfied have you been with your overall physical appearance? The dependent variable was the students completing the online questionnaire. The independent variable was the questionnaire that was created for the study, this is because the questions did not change at any point, therefore, staying consistent throughout the study no matter whether the students completed the questionnaire or not.

Results

Table 1 shows the total number of students enrolled in first-yearthat completed the survey. The table has been separated by gender as well as combined to give an overall view. Demographics such as age, height, weight, and body mass index have also been included to give background information as to who is representing the population. In general, there is an observable difference in the number of females versus males that participated in the study as can be seen in Table 1.

Table 2 represents the male, female and overall average involvement in sport and physical activity, as well as reported confidence levels and body satisfaction. On average with regard to the population, females had a slightly lower body satisfaction score when compared to males, as well as a significantly lower reported confidence than the males. Overall females scored lower than males in each category. This data shows that students had an overall body satisfaction of 64.29%, with males averaging 73.29% and females averaging 59.57%. This shows that in the population males have a 13.72% higher body satisfaction than females and an overall more positive body image.

Both
male and female students were represented as different populations in this
study, using a two-sample equal variance T-test with a two-tail distribution the
average body satisfaction of male and female students at Acadia University was
calculated. The test had an alpha value of 0.05 (probability of rejecting the
null hypothesis when the hypothesis is true) and a p-value of 0.0002 (the
result of the T-test). The null hypothesis (H_o) should be rejected
because the p-value is less than the alpha value, also represented as 0.0002 ≤
0.05. The null hypothesis is that neither male or female students will have any
difference in body satisfaction when compared to each other.

The
Pearson’s correlation (represented by r) was used to calculate the strength of
a relationship between two variables. Average body satisfaction and total
physical activity for the entire population presented a moderate, positive,
linear relationship (r= 0.22). For males, the relationship is weak, negative,
linear (r= -0.1) and with females, the relationship is moderate, positive,
linear (r= 0.38). Average body
satisfaction and BMI overall shows a moderate, negative, linear correlation (r=
-0.19), males presented a moderate, positive, linear correlation (r= 0.24) and
females presented a strong, negative, linear correlation (r= -0.39). Average
body image satisfaction and confidence to manage PA (physical activity)
presented an overall strong, positive, linear correlation (r=0.48), males
presented a weak, positive, linear correlation (r= 0.13) and females presented
a strong, positive, linear correlation (r= 0.48). The correlation between body
image satisfaction and confidence to perform PA (physical activity) presented
an overall moderate, positive, linear correlation (r=0.3) men presented a weak,
negative, linear correlation (r= -0.11) and females presented a strong,
positive, linear correlation (r= 0.32).

In
addition, average body satisfaction and total MVPA (moderate to vigorous
physical activity) presented a moderate, positive linear relationship (r=
0.38). When the population was split into male and female it showed that males
have a weak, negative, linear relationship (r= 0.09) and females have a strong,
positive, linear relationship (r= 0.54). Overall average body satisfaction and
confidence presented a strong, positive, linear relationship (r= 0.44) when the
population was split into male and female, however, the results change
slightly. Males presented a weak, positive, linear relationship (r= 0.045) and
females present a strong, positive, linear relationship (r= 0.46). These
results indicate that the relationship between average body satisfaction and
reported confidence is a much stronger correlation for females than males. Average
confidence to manage PA (physical activity) and years in sport is a moderate,
positive, linear relationship (r=0.37). The correlation between confidence to
perform PA (physical activity) and years in sport have a moderate, positive,
linear relationship (r= 0.22), with very little difference when the population
was split into male and female. The correlation scale is based on r≤ 0.2 representing a weak correlation,
0.2 ≤ r >0.4 representing a moderate correlation and r >0.4 being a
strong correlation.

As shown in Graph 1 females tend to decrease in
body satisfaction as BMI increases.

As shown in Graph 2 males tend to increase in body
satisfaction as BMI increases.

Discussion

The overall findings showed that first-year students have an overall body satisfaction of 64.29%, where males tend to score 73.29% in contrast to females who average 59.57%. This shows that in the population males have a 13.72% higher body satisfaction than females and an overall more positive body image. This supports the original hypothesis that females will have a lower body satisfaction and overall body image scores than males.

When
looking at the relationship between average body satisfaction and total
physical activity there was a moderate positive relationship for the overall
population. Looking at the men, the relationship was weak and negative and for
the females, it was similar to the overall population with a moderate positive
relationship. This means that for women there is a connection between how they
feel about their bodies and the amount of physical activity they do in a week, the
opposite can be said for men. Looking at the correlation between body
satisfaction and body mass index shows that on average there is a moderate
negative relationship. Meaning that the lower the BMI the higher the body
satisfaction, this is especially true for females. Body image satisfaction and
confidence to manage physical activity had an overall strong relationship but
when the population was split up into men and women it showed that the
correlation was much stronger for females than it was for males. Meaning that
for women the more comfortable they are in their bodies the more comfortable
they are managing physical activity. Similar to the last findings when looking
at body image and confidence to perform instead of managing physical activity
females had a much stronger correlation between the two variables than men did.

As predicted, this study
found that women tend to have more negative body image than men. These findings
are consistent with several studies that also concluded that males displayed
higher body satisfaction than females (Lowery et al., 2005; Alfermann &
Stoll, 2000; Kruger et al., 2008). The results of this study also suggest that societal
expectations for women to be thin could be a factor in why females exhibit
negative body image more than men. The findings of this study show that when
BMI increases, average body satisfaction decreases in females, but increases in
males or is unaffected by BMI. This directly corresponds with the findings of (Lowery
et al., 2005) who found the same correlations. Additionally, our results which
found a lower average confidence to perform in females (72.60) than in males
(86.15) coincide with those of (Alfermann & Stoll, 2000) which stated that
when there were no sex differences in dependent variables, they found a
significant difference in perceived physical fitness where in females were much
lower than males. Another similarity between our study and the one of
(Alfermann & Stoll, 2000) is that of increased body satisfaction in those
who are more physically active regardless of gender. Alfermann explains, “…exercise
intervention conditions had improved body image compared to control conditions…”
(Alfermann & Stoll, 2000) which can be translated in to our study, which
takes place in day-to-day life, by concluding that those who exercise more
regularly would similarly resemble that of those partaking in the exercise and
those who exercise less would closer resemble the control group.

Due
to the fact that these findings are similar to the results from other studies, it
is not hard to believe these results. With that, these findings can be applied
to real-world scenarios focusing on body image in general for both men and
women or looking more closely at the effects (positive and negative) physical
activity has on women. Due to the fact that this study was conducted on
first-year students ranging from ages 18-24, it would be easy to apply these
principles to others of the same age range or close to it. It would also be
possible to use these findings to try and proactively educate girls about these
findings at a young age. This could potentially help them learn to be more satisfied
with their bodies throughout their lives, which would hopefully pass on to
future generations.

It
is important to note that even though this study follows the trend of other
similar studies there are always discrepancies, and due to the fact that this
data is based solely on a one-time survey there is definitely room for error.
Meaning that there is no way to draw a final conclusion, simply use this
information as an additional source. A next step to build off of this study
could be to add 2^nd, 3^rd and 4^th-year
students, which would expand the population giving a broader understanding of
the results. 

References

Alfermann, D.,
& Stoll, O. (2000). Effects of
physical exercise on self-concept and well-being.     International Journal of Sport Psychology, 31(1), 47-65

Campbell, A., & Hausenblas, H. A. (2009). Effects of Exercise Interventions on Body Image. Journal of Health Psychology, 14(6), 780-793. doi:10.1177/1359105309338977

Cash, T. F., Morrow, J. A., Hrabosky, J. I., & Perry, A. A. (2004). How Has Body Image Changed? A Cross-Sectional Investigation of College Women and Men From 1983 to   2001. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(6), 10811089.doi:10.1037/0022-006x.72.6.1081

Furnham, A.,
Badmin, N., & Sneade, I. (2002). Body
Image Dissatisfaction: Gender Differences             
in Eating Attitudes, Self-Esteem, and Reasons for Exercise. The Journal of
Psychology,                     136(6),
581-596. doi:10.1080/00223980209604820 

Kirkcaldy, B. D., Shephard, R. J., & Siefen, R. G. (2002). The relationship between physical  activity and self-image and problem behaviour among adolescents. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 37(11), 544-550. doi:10.1007/s00127-002-0554-7

Kruger, J., Lee, C., Ainsworth, B. E., & Macera, C. A. (2008). Body Size Satisfaction and Physical Activity Levels Among Men and Women. Obesity, 16(8), 1976-1979. doi:10.1038/oby.2008.311

Lowery, S. E., Kurpius, S. E., Befort, C., Blanks, E. H., Sollenberger, S., Nicpon, M. F., & Huser, L. (2005). Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Health-Related Behaviors Among Male and Female First Year College Students. Journal of College Student Development, 46(6), 612 623. doi:10.1353/csd.2005.0062

Sánchez-Miguel, P. A., Leo, F. M., Amado, D., Pulido, J. J., & Sánchez-Oliva, D. (2017). Relationships Between Physical Activity Levels, Self-Identity, Body Dissatisfaction and Motivation Among Spanish High School Students. Journal of Human Kinetics, 59(1).   doi:10.1515/hukin-2017-0145

Silberstein, L. R., Striegel-Moore, R. H., Timko, C., & Rodin, J. (1988). Behavioral and psychological implications of body dissatisfaction: Do men and women differ? Sex Roles, 19(3-4), 219-232. doi:10.1007/bf00290156